Death
Death is the permanent end of the life of a biological organism.
Death may refer to the end of life as either an event or condition. Many
factors can cause or contribute to an organism's death, including
predation, disease, habitat destruction, senescence, malnutrition and
accidents. The principal causes of death in developed countries are
diseases related to aging. Traditions and beliefs related to death are
an important part of human culture, and central to many religions. In
medicine, biological details and definitions of death have become
increasingly complicated as technology advances.
Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of death have been
problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat
(cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt
defibrillation have rendered the previous definition inadequate because
breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. This is now called
"clinical death". Events which were causally linked to death in the past
no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or
lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life
support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.
Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors
and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death": People
are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases
(cf. persistent vegetative state). It is presumed that a stoppage of
electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. However,
suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as
occurs during sleep, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs
can easily tell the difference.
Those maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for
consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should
be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the
criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of
cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex.
All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone.
However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of
death — irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole
brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex — has been adopted (for
example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In
2005, the case of Terri Schiavo brought the question of brain death and
artificial sustenance to the front of American politics.
Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be
complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain
drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop
brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have
protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated
intervals under defined conditions.
There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by
physicians and then coming back to life, sometimes days later in their
own coffin, or when embalming procedures are just about to begin. Owing
to significant scientific advancements in the Victorian era, some people
in Britain became obsessively worried about living after being declared
dead.
A first responder is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead. Some
EMT training manuals specifically state that a person is not to be
assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death
has occurred. These indications include mortal decapitation, rigor
mortis (rigidity of the body), livor mortis (blood pooling in the part
of the body at lowest elevation), decomposition, incineration, or other
bodily damage that is clearly inconsistent with life. If there is any
possibility of life and in the absence of a do not resuscitate (DNR)
order, emergency workers are instructed to begin rescue and not end it
until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a
physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being
pronounced dead on arrival (DOA). However, some states allow paramedics
to pronounce death. This is usually based on specific criteria. Aside
from the above mentioned conditions include advanced measures including
CPR, intubation, IV access, and administiring medicines without
regaining a pulse for at least 20 minutes.
In cases of electrocution, CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned
nerves to recover, allowing an apparently-dead person to survive. People
found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept
continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room. This "diving
response", in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are
minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian
diving reflex.
As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have
to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to
vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR
and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a
decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may
not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the
concept of information theoretical death has been suggested as a better
means of defining when true death actually occurs, though the concept
has few practical applications outside of the field of cryonics.
Grief and mourning
Grief is a multi-faceted response to loss. Although conventionally
focused on the emotional response to loss, it also has a physical,
cognitive, behavioural, social and philosophical dimensions. Common to
human experience is the death of a loved one, be they friend, family, or
other. While the terms are often used interchangeably, bereavement often
refers to the state of loss, and grief to the reaction to loss. Response
to loss is varied and researchers have moved away from conventional
views of grief (that is, that people move through an orderly and
predictable series of responses to loss) to one that considers the wide
variety of responses that are influenced by personality, family,
culture, and spiritual and religious beliefs and practices.
Bereavement, while a normal part of life for most people, carries a
degree of risk when limited support is available. Severe reactions to
loss may carry over into familial relations and cause trauma for
children, spouses and any other family members. Many forms of what are
termed 'mental illness' have loss as their root, but covered by many
years and circumstances this often goes unnoticed. Issues of personal
faith and beliefs may also face challenge, as bereaved persons reassess
personal definitions in the face of great pain. While many who grieve
are able to work through their loss independently, accessing additional
support from bereavement professionals may promote the process of
healing. Individual counseling, professional support groups or
educational classes, and peer-lead support groups are primary resources
available to the bereaved. In some regions local hospice agencies may be
an important first contact for those seeking bereavement support.
Mourning is the process of and practices surrounding death related
grief. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of
behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to
participate. Customs vary between different cultures and evolve over
time, though many core behaviors remain constant. Wearing dark, sombre
clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms
of dress are also seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one
often observe a period of grieving, marked by withdrawal from social
events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may also follow certain
religious traditions for such occasions.
Mourning may also apply to the death of, or anniversary of the passing
of, an important individual like a local leader, monarch, religious
figure etc. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent
years some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though
many customs and traditions continue to be followed.
Legal aspects
Settlement of legal entity
Aside from the physical disposition of the corpse, the estate of a
person must be settled. This includes all of the person's legal rights
and obligations, such as assets and debts. Depending on the
jurisdiction, laws or a will may determine the final disposition of the
estate. A legal process, such as probate, will guide these proceedings.
Capital punishment
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the execution of
a convicted criminal by the state as punishment for crimes known as
capital crimes or capital offences. Historically, the execution of
criminals and political opponents was used by nearly all societies—both
to punish crime and to suppress political dissent. Among democratic
countries around the world, all European (except Belarus) and Latin
American states, many Pacific Area states (including Australia, New
Zealand and Timor Leste), and Canada have abolished capital punishment,
while the United States, Guatemala, and most of the Caribbean as well as
some democracies in Asia (e.g., Japan and India) and Africa (e.g.,
Botswana and Zambia) retain it. Among nondemocratic countries, the use
of the death penalty is common but not universal.
In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty
is reserved as punishment for premeditated murder, espionage, treason,
or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such
as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes
such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many
retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In
China human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also
punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world
courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as
cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.
Capital punishment is a very contentious issue. Supporters of capital
punishment argue that it deters crime, prevents recidivism, and is an
appropriate form of punishment for the crime of murder. Opponents of
capital punishment argue that it does not deter criminals more than life
imprisonment, violates human rights, leads to executions of some who are
wrongfully convicted, and discriminates against minorities and the poor.
Warfare
War is a prolonged state of violent, large scale conflict involving two
or more groups of people. When and how war originated is a highly
controversial topic. Some think war has existed as long as humans, while
others believe it began only about 5000 years ago with the rise of the
first states; afterward war "spread to peaceful hunter-gatherers and
agriculturalists.
Often opposing leaders or governing bodies get other people to fight for
them, even if those fighting have no vested interest in the issues
fought over. In time it became practical for some people to have warfare
as their sole occupation, either as a member of a military force or
mercenary. The original cause of war is not always known. Wars may be
prosecuted simultaneously in one or more different theatres. Within each
theatre, there may be one or more consecutive military campaigns.
Individual actions of war within a specific campaign are traditionally
called battles, although this terminology is not always applied to
contentions in modernity involving aircraft, missiles or bombs alone in
the absence of ground troops or naval forces.
The factors leading to war are often complicated and due to a range of
issues. Where disputes arise over issues such as sovereignty, territory,
resources, ideology and a peaceable resolution is not sought, fails, or
is thwarted, war often results.
A war may begin following an official declaration of war in the case of
international war, although this has not always been observed either
historically or currently. Civil wars and revolutions are not usually
initiated by a formal declaration of war, but sometimes a statement
about the purposes of the fighting is made. Such statements may be
interpreted to be declarations of war, or at least a willingness to
fight for a cause.
Military suicide and suicide attacks
A suicide attack occurs when an individual or group violently sacrifice
their own lives for the benefit of their side. In the desperate final
days of World War II, many Japanese pilots volunteered for kamikaze
missions in an attempt to forestall defeat for the Empire. In Nazi
Germany, Luftwaffe squadrons were formed to smash into American B-17s
during daylight bombing missions, in order to delay the highly-probable
Allied victory, although in this case, inspiration was primarily the
Soviet and Polish taran ramming attacks, and death of the pilot was not
a desired outcome. The degree to which such a pilot was engaging in a
heroic, selfless action or whether they faced immense social pressure is
a matter of historical debate. The Japanese also built one-man "human
torpedo" suicide submarines.
However, suicide has been fairly common in warfare throughout history.
Soldiers and civilians committed suicide to avoid capture and slavery
(including the wave of German and Japanese suicides in the last days of
World War II). Commanders committed suicide rather than accept defeat.
Spies and officers have committed suicide to avoid revealing secrets
under interrogation and/or torture. Behavior that could be seen as
suicidal occurred often in battle. Japanese infantrymen usually fought
to the last man, launched "banzai" suicide charges, and committed
suicide during the Pacific island battles in World War II. In Saipan and
Okinawa, civilians joined in the suicides. Suicidal attacks by pilots
were common in the 20th century: the attack by U.S. torpedo planes at
the Battle of Midway was very similar to a kamikaze attack.
Martyrdom
A martyr is a person who is put to death or endures suffering for their
beliefs, principles or ideology. The death of a martyr or the value
attributed to it is called martyrdom. In different belief systems, the
criteria for being considered a martyr is different. In the Christian
context, a martyr is an innocent person who, without seeking death, is
murdered or put to death for his or her religious faith or convictions.
An example is the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire.
Christian martyrs sometimes decline to defend themselves at all, in what
they see as an imitation of Jesus' willing sacrifice.
Islam accepts a broader view of what constitutes a martyr, including
anyone who dies in the struggle between those lands under Muslim
government and those areas outside Muslim rule. Generally, some seek to
include suicide bombers as a "martyr" of Islam, however, this is widely
disputed in mainstream Islamic thought, which argues that a martyr may
not commit suicide.
Though often religious in nature, martyrdom can be applied to a secular
context as well. The term is sometimes applied to those who die or are
otherwise severely affected in support of a cause, such as soldiers
fighting in a war, doctors fighting an epidemic, or people leading civil
rights movements. Proclaiming martyrdom is a common way to draw
attention to a cause and garner support.
Suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally taking one's own life. The term
"suicide" can also be used as a noun to refer to a person who has killed
himself or herself.
Views on suicide have been influenced by cultural views on existential
themes such as religion, honor, and the meaning of life. Most Western
and Asian religions—the Abrahamic religions, Buddhism, Hinduism—consider
suicide a dishonorable act; in the West it was regarded as a serious
crime and offense against God due to religious belief in the sanctity of
life. Japanese views on honor and religion led to seppuku being
respected as a means to atone for mistakes or failure during the samurai
era. In the 20th century suicide in the form of self-immolation has been
used as a form of protest. Self-sacrifice for others is not usually
considered suicide.
The predominant view of modern medicine is that suicide is a mental
health concern, associated with psychological factors such as the
difficulty of coping with depression, inescapable pain or fear, or other
mental disorders and pressures. Suicide is often interpreted as a "cry
for help" and attention, or to express despair and the wish to escape,
rather than a genuine intent to die. Most suicides (for various reasons)
do not succeed on a first attempt; those who later gain a history of
repetitions are significantly more at risk of eventual completion.
Nearly a million people worldwide die by suicide annually. While
completed suicides are higher in men, women have higher rates for
suicide attempts. Elderly males have the highest suicide rate, although
rates for young adults have been increasing in recent years.
Customs and superstitions
Death's finality and the relative lack of firm scientific understanding
of its processes for most of human history have led to many different
traditions and cultural rituals for dealing with death.
Sacrifices
Sacrifice ("to make sacred") includes the practice of offering the lives
of animals or people to the gods, as an act of propitiation or worship.
The practice of sacrifice is found in the oldest human records, and the
archaeological record finds corpses, both animal and human, that show
marks of having been sacrificed and have been dated to long before any
records. Human sacrifice was practiced in many ancient cultures. The
practice has varied between different civilizations, with some like the
Aztecs being notorious for their ritual killings, while others have
looked down on the practice. Victims ranging from prisoners to infants
to virgins were killed to please their gods, suffering such fates as
burning, beheading and being buried alive.
Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as practised by many
religions as a means of appeasing a god or spiritual being, changing the
course of nature or divining the future. Animal sacrifice has occurred
in almost all cultures, from the Hebrews to the Greeks and Romans to the
Yoruba. Over time human and animal sacrifices have become less common in
the world, such that modern sacrifices are rare. Most religions condemn
the practice of human sacrifices, and present day laws generally treat
them as a criminal matter. Nonetheless traditional sacrifice rituals are
still seen in less developed areas of the world where traditional
beliefs and superstitions linger, including the sacrifice of human
beings.
Philosophy, religion and mythology
Faith in some form of afterlife is an important aspect of many people's
beliefs. Such beliefs are usually manifested as part of a religion, as
they pertain to phenomena beyond the ordinary experience of the natural
world. For example, one aspect of Hinduism involves belief in a
continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth (Samsara) and the
liberation from the cycle (Moksha). Eternal return is a non-religious
concept proposing an infinitely recurring cyclic universe, which relates
to the subject of the afterlife and the nature of consciousness and
time. Though various evidence has been advanced in attempts to
demonstrate the reality of an afterlife, these claims have never been
validated. For this reason, the material or metaphysical existence of an
afterlife remains a matter outside the scope of science.
Many cultures have incorporated a god of death into their mythology or
religion. As death, along with birth, is among the major parts of human
life, these deities may often be one of the most important deities of a
religion. In some religions with a single powerful deity as the source
of worship, the death deity is an antagonistic deity against which the
primary deity struggles.
In polytheistic religions or mythologies which have a complex system of
deities governing various natural phenomena and aspects of human life,
it is common to have a deity who is assigned the function of presiding
over death. The inclusion of such a "departmental" deity of death in a
religion's pantheon is not necessarily the same as the glorification of
death which is commonly condemned by the use of the term "death-worship"
in modern political rhetoric. In the theology of monotheistic religion,
the one god governs both life and death. However, in practice this
manifests in different rituals and traditions and varies according to a
number of factors including geography, politics, traditions and the
influence of other religions.
Personification of death
Death has been personified as a figure or fictional character in
mythology and popular culture since the earliest days of storytelling.
Because the reality of death has had a substantial influence on the
human psyche and the development of civilization as a whole, the
personification of Death as a living, sentient entity is a concept that
has existed in many societies since the beginning of recorded history.
In western culture, death is usually shown as a skeletal figure carrying
a large scythe, and sometimes wearing a midnight black gown with a hood.
Examples of death personified are:
- In modern-day European-based folklore, Death is known as the "Grim Reaper" or "The grim spectre of death". This form typically wields a scythe, and is sometimes portrayed riding a white horse.
- In the Middle Ages, Death was imagined as a decaying or mummified human corpse, later becoming the familiar skeleton in a robe.
Glorification of and fascination with death
Whether because of its very poetic nature or because of the great
mystery it presents, or both, death is and has very often been glorified
in many cultures through many different means. War, crime, revenge,
martyrdom, suicide and many other forms of violence involving death are
often glorified by different media, often in modern times being
glorified even in spite of the attempts at depicting death meant to be
de-glorifying. For example, film critic Roger Ebert mentions in a number
of articles that Francis Truffaut makes the claim it's impossible to
make an anti-war film, as any depiction of war ends up glorifying it.
The most prevalent and permanent form of death's glorification is
through artistic expression. Through song, such as Knockin' on Heaven's
Door or Bullet in the Head, many artists show death through poetic
analogy or even as a poetic analogy, as in the latter mentioned song.
Events such as The Charge of the Light Brigade and The Battle of the
Alamo have served as inspirations for artistic depictions of and myths
regarding death.
Perception of glory in death is subjective and can even differ wildly
from one member of a group to another. Religion plays a key role,
especially in terms of expectations of an afterlife. Personal and
perceptions about mode of death are also important factors. One person's
martyr could be another person's waste of life.
